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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 91
\begin{center}
\caption{Superconductor Digital Circuits}
\label{table1.likharev}
\vspace{5pt}
\begin{tabular}{|l|}
\hline
\\ 
Superconducting Transmission Lines \\ 
\hspace{3em} -- ballistic transfer of picosecond waveforms \\ 
\hspace{3em} -- small crosstalk \\ 
\\ 
Josephson Junctions \\ 
\hspace{3em} -- picosecond waveform generation \\ 
\hspace{3em} -- impedence matching to transmission lines \\ 
\hspace{3em} -- low dissipation $\frac{(\rightarrow\rm high\
density)}{\rightarrow\rm (high\ speed)}$ \\ 
\\ 
Fabrication Technology \\ 
\hspace{3em} -- very simple (low-$\rm T_c$) \\ 
\\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm T_c$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 110
\begin{center}
\caption{}
\label{table2.likharev}
\vspace{5pt}
\begin{tabular}{|lcc|}
\hline
&& \\ 
&\multicolumn{1}{c}{\bf Latching}&\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\bf RSFQ} \\ 
&\multicolumn{1}{c}{\bf Circuits}&\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\bf Circuits} \\ 
&& \\ 
Data Presentation&voltage&Magnetic Flux \\ 
Natural Quantization&no&yes $(\Phi_0 = h/2e)$ \\ 
Power Consumption&$\rm \sim 3\ pcW/gate$&$\rm \sim 0.3\ pcW/gate$ \\ 
Power Supply&AC&DC \\ 
SC Wiring Layer&3&2 \\ 
Self-time Possible&no&yes \\ 
Maximum Speed&$\sim\rm 3\,GHz$&$\sim\rm 300\,GHz$ \\ 
&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\Phi_0=h/2e$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\Phi_0$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{equation}V(t)dt=\Phi_0^2 mV-ps 
\end{equation}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $p-n$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 8\,kA/cm^2$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $32\times 32$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 136
\begin{center}
\caption{$32\times 32$-bit multipliers based on various digital
circuit technologies}
\label{table3.likharev}
\vspace{5pt}
\begin{tabular}{|lcccc|}
\hline
&&&& \\ 
\multicolumn{1}{|c}{Circuit Type} & Design & Integration Scale & Throughput
& Latency \\ 
\multicolumn{1}{|c}{Fabrication} & Rules & ($10^3$ Josephson or&
($10^9$ Generation & (ns) \\ 
\multicolumn{1}{|c}{Technology} & ($\rm \mu\,m$)& $p-n$ junctions)& per
second) & \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&& \\ 
parallel- &&&& \\ 
pipelined;&1.0&200\phantom{.5}&""0.2&150 \\ 
SC-MOS &&&& \\ 
&&&& \\ 
parallel; &&&& \\ 
JJ latching&1.0&"70\phantom{.5}&""1.5&""1 \\ 
&&&& \\ 
Serial;&&&& \\ 
JJ RSFQ&1.0&""1.5&""1.5&""1 \\ 
&&&& \\ 
Parallel-&&&& \\ 
pipelined&1.0&"40\phantom{.5}&100\phantom{.5}&""1 \\ 
JJ RSFQ&&&& \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $3\times 10^{-2}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm
4.2\,K$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 300\,K$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 161
\begin{center}
\caption{RSFQ:\ Expected Performance}
\label{table4.likharev}
\begin{tabular}{|llcc|}
\hline
&&& \\ 
\multicolumn{2}{|c}{Technology}& {Speed, GHz}&{Power} \\ 
&& per GFLOPS & per Processor \\ 
&&& \\ 
Old&$(\rm 3\,\mu\,m)$&"30&$3\times 10^{-2}$ \\ 
New&$(\rm 1\,\mu\,m)$&100&$10^{-1}$ \\ 
Prospective&$(0.35\,\mu\,m)$&300&$3\times 10^{-1}$ \\ 
&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\\ 
For a PetaFLOPS machine (@$\rm 1\,\mu\,m$) \\ 
$\sim 10^4$ processors $\times 0.1$ W each $\cong 1$ kW \\ 
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 179
\begin{center}
\caption{Major Problems of the RFSQ Technology}
\label{table5.likharev}
\vspace{5pt}
\begin{tabular}{|ll|}
\hline
& \\ 
1.& Helium Refrigerations ($\sim$\$10--20 K/unit) \\ 
2.& Large Memories (development \$\$ ) \\ 
3.& Psychology (``\$60 M problem'') \\ 
& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 190
[t]
\begin{center}
\caption{RSFQ Technology:\ Forthcoming Applications (Favorable\hfill\break
Scenario)}
\label{table6.likharev}
\vspace{5pt}
\begin{tabular}{|lrc|}
\hline
&& \\ 
\multicolumn{3}{|l|}{1.\ \ A/D Converters} \\ 
\hspace{3em} 16 bits @ $\sim 100$ MHz&$\sim 1,000$ JJ&1993--94 \\ 
&& \\ 
\multicolumn{3}{|l|}{2.\ \ Digital SQUIDS} \\ 
\hspace{3em} 10 ft/Hz $\frac{1}{2}$ @ $\sim 10^{10} \frac{\Phi}{\rm
Hz}$&$\sim 1,500$ JJ&1994--95 \\ 
&& \\ 
\multicolumn{3}{|l|}{3.\ \ Digital DC voltmeters and potentiometers} \\ 
\hspace{3em} 30 bits @ 0.15 \& $\rm 10\,V$&$\sim 10,000$ JJ&1994--95 \\ 
&& \\ 
\multicolumn{3}{|l|}{4.\ \ Digital signal processors @ intelligent
switches} \\ 
\hspace{3em} $\sim 3$ GFLOPS/proc @ 32 bits &$\sim 12,000$ JJ&1995--96 \\ 
&& \\ 
\multicolumn{3}{|l|}{5.\ \ Dedicated Coprocessors for Supercomputing} \\ 
\hspace{3em} ??&&1996--?? \\ 
&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{chapter}
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\stepcounter{subsection}
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\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 2\,\mu\,m$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 64\,K$
}


\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{subsection}
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\stepcounter{subsection}
\stepcounter{subsection}
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\stepcounter{chapter}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{ll}
{\bf Chair:}\\ 
Geoffrey C. Fox&Syracuse University \\ 
&gcf@npac.syr.edu \\ 
{\bf Associate Chair:}\\ 
Rick Stevens&Argonne National Laboratory \\ 
&stevens@antares.mcs.anl.gov \\ 
\\ 
{\bf Working Group:} \\ 
Tony Chan&University of California at Los Angeles \\ 
Dwight Duston&BMDO \\ 
Walter Ermler&U. S. Department of Energy \\ 
Jim Fischer&NASA Goddard \\ 
Bruce Fryxell&NASA Goddard \\ 
Ed Giorgio&U. S. Department of Defense \\ 
Jim Glimm&SUNY, Stony Brook \\ 
Jacob Maizel&National Institute of Health \\ 
Rob Schrieber&NASA RIACS \\ 
Paul Stolorz&Jet Propulsion Laboratory \\ 
Francis Sullivan&Supercomputing Research Center \\ 
Richard Zippel&Cornell University \\ 
\end{tabular}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf A.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Biology, Biochemistry, and
Biomedicine} \\ 
&A1&Design better drugs \\ 
&A2&Understand the structure of biological molecules (protein folding) \\ 
&A3&Genome informatics and phylogeny \\ 
&A4&Process data from medical instruments \\ 
&A5&Simulate functions of human body \\ 
&&-- Blood flow through heart \\ 
&A6& Neural networks in cortex \\ 
&A7&Real time three-dimensional biosensor data fusion (the virtual
human) \\ 
&A8&Analysis of integrated medical database to improve quality and
cost of health care \\ 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf B.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Chemistry, Chemical Engineering} \\ 
&B1&Design and understand nature of catalysts and enzymes \\ 
&B2&Simulate new chemical plants and distribution (pipeline) systems 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf C.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Physics} \\ 
&C1&Understand the nature of new materials \\ 
&C2&Simulate semiconductors used in chips \\ 
&C3&Design fusion energy system (Numerical Tokamak) \\ 
&C4&Simulate nuclear explosions \\ 
&C5&Matter transporter (three-dimensional fax and edit) \\ 
&C6&Understand properties of fundamental particles (QCD) 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf D.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Space Science and Astronomy} \\ 
&D1&Evolve the structure of the early universe into the epoch of the current 
observable world (cosmology) \\ 
&D2&Understand how galaxies are formed \\ 
&D3&Understand large scale astrophysical systems (stars, gas clouds,
globular clusters) \\ 
&D4&Understand dynamics of Sun \\ 
&D5&Understand collision of black holes and emission of gravitational
waves \\ 
&D6&Analyze new optical and radio astronomy data to combine data from
many telescopes and minimize impact of Earth's atmosphere 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf E.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Artificial Intelligence} \\ 
&E1&New neural network learning and optimization algorithms \\ 
&E2&High-level searches of full text databases \\ 
&E3&Decipher new military coding methods (cryptography) \\ 
&E4&Deep search of game trees for social models and games such as computer 
chess 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf F.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Study of Climate and Weather} \\ 
&F1&Forecast weather and predict global climate \\ 
&F2&Forecast severe storms (tornados, hurricanes) \\ 
&F3&Study coupling of atmosphere, ocean, Earth use with economic and
political decisions \\ 
&F4&Integrate models and weather data for optimal interpolation (data
assimilation) 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf G.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Environmental Studies} \\ 
&G1&Model flow of pollutants and ground water in the Earth (flow in porous 
media) \\ 
&G2&Model air and water quality and relation to policy \\ 
&G3&Model ecological systems \\ 
&G4&Analyze data from planet Earth to understand nature and use of
land (Earth Observing System) 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf H.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Geophysics and Petroleum
Engineering} \\ 
&H1&Analyze three-dimensional seismic data to obtain better well
placement \\ 
&H2&Model oil reservoir to optimize effectiveness of secondary and
tertiary oil extractions \\ 
&H3&Analyze models of and data from earthquakes to improve predictions
of how and when quakes will occur 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}% latex2html id marker 359
{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf I.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Aerospace, Mechanical, and
Manufacturing Engineering} \\ 
&I1&Build more energy efficient cars, airplanes, and other complex
artifacts using computational fluid dynamics, structural analysis, and
multidisciplinary optimization for a graph of expected performance and
memory needs in the aircraft industry (see Figure~\ref{fig1.peta}) \\ 
&I2&Design new propulsion systems \\ 
&I3&Simulate new combustion materials \\ 
&I4&Simulate radar signature of new vehicles (stealth aircraft) \\ 
&I5&Simulate chips used in new computers \\ 
&I6&Simulate electromagnetic properties of high-frequency circuits \\ 
&I7&Simulate manufacturing processes \\ 
&I8&Optimal scheduling of manufacturing systems 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf J.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Military Applications} \\ 
&J1&Simulate new military sensor and communication systems \\ 
&J2&Control military operations with data fusion and spatial reasoning \\ 
&J3&Integrate human, online military systems, and computer simulations
in exercises (SIMNET) 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf K.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Business Operations} \\ 
&K1&Simulations and complex database analysis for advanced decision
support in business and politics \\ 
&K2&Support integrated agile manufacturing system \\ 
&K3&Dynamic scheduling of air and surface traffic when disrupted by
weather and crises \\ 
&K4&Control and image analysis for advanced robots \\ 
&K5&Economic modeling on Wall Street \\ 
&K6&Graphics for digital movies \\ 
&K7&Linkage analysis to find correlated records in a database
indicating anomalies and fraud in health care, securities, credit card 
operations, and similar areas \\ 
&K8&Analysis of customer data to optimize marketing (market
segmentation) 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{llp{4.25in}}
{\bf L.\ }&\multicolumn{2}{l}{\bf Society} \\ 
&L1&Large-scale simulations and database searches for education \\ 
&L2&Electronic shopping and other interactive television \\ 
&L3&Support world-wide digital library and information systems (text,
images, video) \\ 
&L4&Integrate and update intelligent agents on the NII (Knowbot 
garage) \\ 
&L5&Image analysis for large databases to find just the right picture
(missing persons, cover of magazine) \\ 
&L6&Support of up to a million simultaneous players in large virtual
environment linked to advanced home video games 
\end{tabular}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 395
\centerline{\psfig{figure=slide28.epsf,clip=true,width=4.5in}}
\caption{Aeronautics Modeling and Simulation}
\label{fig1.peta}
\end{figure}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^6$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rightarrow$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\sim 10^{-14}$
}


\stepcounter{section}
\addtocounter{table}{1}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 458
\begin{center}
\caption{Software Technology Issues for Each Application}
\vspace{10pt}
\label{tab4.peta}
\begin{tabular}{|lp{4.25in}|}
\hline
& \\ 
1. & What operating system support does the application need? \\ 
2. & What compiler and tool support does the application need? \\ 
3. & Does the application naturally fit particular programming \\ 
   & paradigms? \\ 
4. & Are there special user interface issues? \\ 
& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 409
\begin{center}
\caption{Some General Application Characteristics}
\vspace{10pt}
\label{tab2.peta}
\begin{tabular}{|lp{4.25in}|}
\hline
& \\ 
1. & Is PetaFLOPS performance needed by this application, and if so,
why? \\ 
2. & Are new algorithms needed? \\ 
3. & What are size characteristics of problem?  How does size scale
as we increase performance of computer? \\ 
4. & Does this problem have special precision needs? \\ 
5. & What is nature of computation?  Does it involve FLOPS or some
other sort of OPS? \\ 
6. & What are I/O requirements of problem in terms of bandwidth and
(secondary) storage size? \\ 
& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 419
\begin{center}
\caption{Some Architectural Characteristics of Applications}
\vspace{10pt}
\label{tab3.peta}
\begin{tabular}{|lp{4.25in}|}
\hline
& \\ 
1. & What is memory required for a PetaFLOPS performance? \\ 
2. & What are secondary and tertiary storage needs? \\ 
3. & Can this application use a metacomputer (networked computers)? \\ 
4. & Can this application use unconventional architectures (e.g.,
neural networks, content addressable memory, associative processor)? \\ 
5. & What is the expected realized versus peak performance for this
application? \\ 
6. & Can this application use a SIMD architecture or a MIMD
collection of SIMD ``nodes''? \\ 
7. & Is this application sensitive to latency? \\ 
8. & What degree of local parallelism is present in this application?
This is in addition to ``overall'' data parallelism and can be
exploited in shared memory multiprocessor nodes. \\ 
9. & How many nodes does ``overall'' data parallelism support? \\ 
   & Note\@: Burton~Smith points out that product $P$ of performance
(PetaFLOPS) and best possible memory access time (nanosecond) is
lower bound to overall concurrency needed in application.  $P$ is at
least $10^6 ( = 10^{15} \times 10^{-9} )$.  Characteristics 8 and 9
break up this minimal $P$ for a given problem into amount that can be
supported by coarse-grain data parallelism (characteristic 8) and that
(characteristic 9), which can be exploited in a finer grain (e.g.,
shared memory) architecture. \\ 
10. & Discussions with architecture group developed three strawman
architectures. \\ 
& $\bullet$ Architecture I:\phantom{II}\ Around 200 TeraFLOPS 
nodes---shared memory architecture \\ 
& $\bullet$ Architecture II:\phantom{I}\ Around 10,000 0.1 
TeraFLOPS nodes---switch or similar general interconnect \\ 
& $\bullet$ Architecture III:\ Around $10^6$ 1~GigaFLOPS 
nodes---mesh interconnect architecture \\ 
& Can applications use these architectures?  The answer to this question
is related to those of previous characteristics. \\ 
& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}\mbox{Memory} = \left\lbrack \frac{\mbox{\# FLOPS}}{1\ \mbox{GigaFLOPS}}
\right\rbrack^n \ \mbox{gigabyte}^*
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n=3/4$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n<3/4$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{13}\ \mbox{bytes} = 8\ \mbox{(bytes/word)} \times 10\ 
\mbox{components/grid points} \times 5000^3$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{15}\ \mbox{bytes} = 2300$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\phantom{10^{15}\ \mbox{bytes}} = 10^9$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\phantom{10^{15}\ \mbox{bytes}} = 3\times 10^8$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\phantom{10^{15}\ \mbox{bytes}} = 3\times 10^{10}$
}


\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^4$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $h^4$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $h^7$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}\mbox{memory}\ \sim \mbox{speed}\ ^{3/4}
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $an + b$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $a$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $b$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $M$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $m$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(mM)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(m)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(M^{2/3})$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(m^2)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(M)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}m(aM^{2/3} + b)
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}mM
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}mb + ma M^{2/3} << mM
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}b<<M
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{displaymath}<<M^{1/3}
\end{displaymath}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^3 \times 10^3 \times 10^2 = 10^8$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $3 \times 10^9$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $3 \times 10^{14}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\times$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{19}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 10^4\,sec = 3~hrs.$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^9$
}


\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1000^3$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $3\times 3$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $200^4$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $N$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $(m^2 + m)/2$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $(m^4 + 2m^3 + 3m^2 + 2m)/8$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(m^4)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $(3s 2p)/[2s 1p]$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $s$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $p$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm Be_{135}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $m=1215$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n=675$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $(\sim 10^{12})$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(1,500)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(5,000)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm Be_{135}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\sim 30$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{16}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $MO$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(m^5)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $MO\,$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $L$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $m^N$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $L=10,000^{5000}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $i=1, 2, 3, \ldots$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $m^i$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(L)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^8$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{11}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{18}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{19}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\sim N^3$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\sim N^2$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 16\,K$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n^N$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-9}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 1\,ms$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $N^2$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $N^4$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $128\times 128\times 128$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10\times 10$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.5 \times
10^{14}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $^2$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.5\times 10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^3 \times 10^3$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $6.4 \times
10^7$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $100$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $6.4\times 10^5$
}


\stepcounter{paragraph}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.6 \times 10^5$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.35 \times 10^{10}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $4 \times 10^7$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $4 \times 10^5$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $600$
}


\stepcounter{paragraph}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $8.6 \times
10^{15}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^5$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $32$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 548
\begin{center} 
\begin{tabular}{l|c|c|c|c|}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Downlink rate} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Grid points} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{percent} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Modeled bits} \\  \cline{2-5} 
&&&& \\ 
per second & $1.0 \times 10^{11}$ & $1.56 \times 10^5$ & $0.00\%$ & 
$8.30 \times 10^7$ \\  \cline{2-5}
&&&& \\ 
per day & $8.64 \times 10^{15}$ & $1.35 \times 10^{10}$ & $0.91\%$ & 
$7.18 \times 10^{12}$ \\  \cline{2-5} 
&&&& \\ 
per year & $3.16 \times 10^{18}$ & $4.93 \times 10^{12}$ & $331\%$ & 
$2.62 \times 10^{15}$ \\  \cline{2-5} 
\end{tabular} 
\caption{Data Rates in Surface Model\label{Data:Rates:Fig}} 
\end{center}
\end{figure}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{11}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^3 \times 10^3 \times 8$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n \log n$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $8 \times
10^{7}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.56 \times 10^5$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.25 \times 10^{13}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $8 \times 10^6$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $8 \times 10^{11}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.25 \times 10^{17}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $532$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $7.92 \times 10^{14}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $7.18
\times 10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $9.8
\times 10^{15}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $8.4
\times 10^{15}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1.18 \times 10^{19}$
}


\stepcounter{paragraph}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{15}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $1/16$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $32.8$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $165$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 595
\begin{center} 
\begin{tabular}{l|c|c|c|}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$N$ cost} & 
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$N \log N$ cost} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$N^2$
cost}  \\   \cline{2-4} 
&&& \\ 
All archived data & $1.14 \times 10^{17}$ & $6.04 \times 10^{18}$ & 
$1.12 \times 10^{33}$ \\  \cline{2-4} 
&&& \\ 
U.S. data, one sample/grid & $5.73 \times 10^{14}$ & $2.61 \times 10^{16}$ & 
$1.12 \times 10^{28}$ \\  \cline{2-4} 
&&& \\ 
Farm $10^4$ acres & $4.68 \times 10^{6}$ & $8.72 \times 10^{7}$ & 
$1.90 \times 10^{12}$ \\  \cline{2-4}
\end{tabular} 
\caption{Query processing time in operations per second \label{Query:Fig}} 
\end{center} 
\end{figure}
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^3$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^2$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\sim 10^{15}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{14}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{14}$
}


\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 642
\begin{center}
\caption{Characteristics of General Algorithm Classes}
\label{tab5.peta}
\vspace{10pt}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|} \hline
Type of Algorithm & Example  & Algorithm & Parallel \\  
&&Scalability&Scalability \\  \hline
Local/regular  &  PDE time marching &  poor    &   good  \\ 
               &  Monte Carlo       &  poor    &   good   \\  \hline
global         &  Pseudo time stepping & poor  &   good   \\ 
               &  Sparse matrix inversion & poor  & poor  \\ 
               &  Multigrid        &  good     &  not optimal \\  \hline
dynamic/irregular & Local mesh refinement  & good  & poor  \\  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(n^2)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $O(n^4)$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $n=10^4$
}


\stepcounter{chapter}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{ll}
Karl Kukkonen (Chair)& Jet Propulsion Laboratory \\ 
Doc Bedard (Co-Chair)& National Security Agency \\ 
Joe Brewer (Co-Chair)& Westinghouse Electric Corporation \\ 
John Neff (Co-Chair)& University of Colorado \\ 
Larry Bergman & Jet Propulsion Laboratory \\ 
Paul Boudreaux & National Security Agency \\ 
Alan Huang & AT\&T Bell Laboratories \\ 
Sing Lee & University of California at San Diego \\ 
Konstantin Likharev & Suny \\ 
John Przybysz & Westinghouse Electric Corporation \\ 
Steve Pei & AT\&T Bell Laboratories \\ 
John Peterson & Jet Propulsion Laboratory \\ 
Coke Reed & Supercomputing Research Center \\ 
Arnold Silver & TRW \\ 
Martin Sokoloski & Science and Technology Corporation \\ 
Bob Westervelt & Harvard University \\ 
\end{tabular}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm CV^2f$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 60\,MHz$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 200\,MHz$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 300\,MHz$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 665
\centering
\caption{National Roadmap for Semiconductor Technology (1992 Version)}
\label{techrdmap}
\vspace{10pt}
\small
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline
Year & 1995 & 1998 & 2001 & 2004 & 2007\\  \hline
Feature size (microns) & 0.35 & 0.25 & 0.18 & 0.12 & 0.1\\  \hline
Gates/chip & 800k & 2M & 5M & 10M & 20M\\  \hline
Bits/chip DRAM & 64M & 265M & 1G & 4G & 16G\\  \hline
Bits/chip SRAM & 16M & 64M & 256M & 1G & 4G\\  \hline
Wafer Processing Cost (\$/cm) & 3.90 & 3.80 & 3.70 & 3.60 & 3.50\\  
\hline
Chip size (mm$^{2}$) logic & & & & & \\ 
per microprocessor & 400 & 600 & 800 & 1000 & 1250\\  \hline
Chip size (mm$^{2}$) DRAM & 200 & 320 & 500 & 700 & 1000\\  \hline
Wafer diameter (mm) & 200 & 200--400 & 200--400 & 200--400 & 200--400\\  
\hline
Defect Density (defects/cm$^{2}$) & 0.05 & 0.03 & 0.01 & 0.004 & 
0.002\\  \hline
Interconnect levels (logic) & 4--5 & 5 & 5--6 & 6 & 6--7\\  \hline
Max power (W/die) & & & & &\\ 
high performance & 15 & 30 & 40 & 40--120 & 40--200\\  \hline
Max power (W/die) portable & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4\\  \hline
Power supply (V) desktop & 3.3 & 2.2 & 2.2 & 1.5 & 1.5\\  \hline
Power supply (V) portable & 2.2 & 2.2 & 1.5 & 1.5 & 1.5\\  \hline
Number of I/Os & 750 & 1500 & 2000 & 3500 & 5000\\  \hline
Performance (MHz) off-chip & 100 & 175 & 250 & 350 & 500\\  \hline
Performance (MHz) on-chip & 200 & 350 & 500  & 700 & 1000\\  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 679
\centering
\caption{CMOS Technology and Parallel Processor Chip Projections}
\label{cmostech}
\vspace{10pt}
\small
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline
& Technology Roadmap Year & 2007 & 2010 & 2013 \cr
& Device Introduction Year & 2009 & 2012 & 2015 \\  \hline
&feature size & 0.1 & 0.07 & 0.05 \\  \cline{2-5}
Technology Characteristics&voltage level & 0.9 & 0.9 & 0.9 \\  \cline{2-5}
&clock (MHz) & 1000 & 1400 & 2000 \\  \hline \hline
Processor Chip & peak thru-put (GFLOPS) & 128 & 360 & 1024 \\  \cline{2-5}
with 1 MByte & chip power (Watts) & 28 & 54 & 110 \\  \cline{2-5}
Memory per Node & chip memory (MBytes) & 64 & 128 & 256 \\  \cline{2-5}
&number of nodes & 64 & 128 & 256 \\  \hline \hline
Processor Chip & peak thru-put (GFLOPS) & 32 & 90 & 256 \\  \cline{2-5}
with 8 MBytes &chip power (Watts) & 22 & 44 & 89 \\   \cline{2-5}
Memory per Node & chip memory (MBytes) & 128 & 256 & 512 \\  \cline{2-5}
&number of nodes & 16 & 32 & 64 \\  \hline \hline 
Processor Chip & peak thru-put (GFLOPS) & 16 & 45 & 128 \\  
with 16 MBytes & chip power (Watts) & 20 & 39 & 80 \\  \cline{2-5}
Memory/Node & chip memory (MBytes) & 128 & 256 & 512 \\  \cline{2-5}
& number of nodes & 8 & 16 & 32 \\  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 16\,gigabyte$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 256\,gigabyte$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 64\,gigabytes$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 699
\centering
\caption{Processor Chip Requirements for a PetaFLOPS Machine
Using 0.05 Micron Technology}
\label{0.05micron}
\small
\vspace{.25in}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline
Chip & Chip & Chip & Number & Power & Memory\\ 
GFLOPS & MBytes & Watts & of chips & kwatts & GBytes\\  \hline
1024 & 256 & 110 & 977 & 107 & 250\\  \hline
256 & 512 & 89 & 3906 & 348 & 2000\\  \hline
128 & 512 & 80 & 7813 & 625 & 4000\\  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 710
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig1.optics.eps,width=4.5in}}
\caption{Optics: The preferred interconnect technology for the 
higher frequency and longer distance applications [Feldman:88a],
[Maurin:93a].} 
\label{fig1.optics}
\end{figure}
}


\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\approx$
}


\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $100\times100$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $(64+7+1)\times 10,000 = 720,000$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $640\times 10,000 = 6,400,000$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $>10$
}


\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 725
\begin{center}
\caption{Projections for development of optical guided wave
technologies for optical interconnection.}
\label{tab1.optics}
\vspace{10pt}
{\bf Emerging Capabilities for Guided Optical Interconnects}
\vspace{10pt}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|r|r|c|}
\hline
&&&& \\ 
&$\underline{\rm Example}$&$\underline{\rm Speed}$&$\underline{\rm Power}$
&$\underline{\rm Technology}$ \\ 
&&&& \\ 
Current&HP 100 MB& 100 Mb/s& 1--2 Watts& LED* \\ 
Capability&AT\&T 100 MB&&& \\ 
&&&& \\ 
&SONET&2.5 Gb/s&10 Watts&LD* \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&& \\ 
10-Year&&&& LD \\ 
Projection&&100 Gb/s & 1 Watt& (WDM or TDM)* \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&& \\ 
20-Year&&&& LD \\ 
Projection&&1 Tb/s& 10 Watts & (WDM and TDM) \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
*LED (Light Emitting Diode), LD (Laser Diode), WDM (Wavelength \\ 
Division Multiplexing), TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) \\ 
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 745
\begin{center}
\caption{Projections for development of optical free-space 
technologies for optical interconnection.}
\label{tab2.optics}
\vspace{10pt}
{\bf Emerging Capabilities for Free-Space Optical Interconnects}
\vspace{10pt}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
&{\bf Example}&{\bf Perf.}&{\bf Speed/}&{\bf Power}&{\bf Technology} \\ 
&&&{\bf Channel}&& \\  \cline{2-6}
&&&&& \\ 
Current&AT\&T&&&& \\ 
Capability&Switching & 0.15 & 150 & \phantom{0}10 & S-SEED* \\ 
&Fabric& Tb/s&MB/s&Watts& \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
10-Year&&1&\phantom{0}10 & 100 &FED-SEED \\ 
Projection&&petabit/s & Gb/s & Watts & MQW Mode \\ 
&&&&&VCSEL* \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
20-Year&& 10 &10 & \phantom{0}1 KW & VCSEL \\ 
Projection&& petabits/s &Gb/s && Smart \\ 
&&&&& Pixels \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\noindent *S-SEED (Symmetric Self Electrooptic Effect Device), FET-SEED 
(Field \\ 
Effect Transistor Self Electrooptic Effect Device), MQW Mod. (Multiple \\ 
Quantum Well Modulators), VCSEL (Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting \\ 
Laser Diodes). \\ 
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 767
\begin{center}
\caption{Projections for development of optics for memory.}
\label{tab3.optics}
\vspace{10pt}
{\bf Emerging Capabilities for Optical Memory}
\vspace{10pt}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
&{\bf Example}&{\bf Memory}&{\bf Access}&{\bf Transfer}&{\bf Technology} \\ 
&&{\bf Size}&{\bf Speed}&{\bf Rate}& \\ 
\cline{2-6}
&&&&& \\ 
Current&CD & 600 & 10 & 30 & Optical Disk \\ 
Capability&ROMs&Mbytes&millisec.&MB/sec.& \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
10-Year&&0.1&1&$10^{15}$& Two-Photon \\ 
Projection&& petabit & microsec. & bits/sec. & Medium \\ 
&&&&& Holographic \\ 
&&&&& with SHB* \\ 
&&&&& Acousto-optic \\ 
&&&&& Scanners \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
20-Year&&100&0.1&$10^{15}$& Two-Photon \\ 
Projection&&petabits& microsec. & bits/sec. & 2-D SLM \\ 
&&&&& Addressed* \\ 
&&&&& Database Filters \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\noindent *SHB (Spectral Hole Burning), SLM (Spatial Light Modulator). \\ 
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{4}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{5}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{6}$
}


\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 798
\begin{center}
\caption{Places within PetaFLOPS computer hierarchy where various
optical interconnect technologies will likely be needed.  This is
shown for each of the three proposed PetaFLOPS architectures.}
\label{tab4.optics}
\vspace{10pt}
{\bf Optical Interconnects for PetaFLOPS Computers}
\vspace{15pt}
{\footnotesize
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|l|l|l|l|}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{IC-to-IC}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{MCM-to-MCM}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{Inter-Board}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Inter-Card Cage}& \multicolumn{1}{c}{Inter-Rack} \\ 
\multicolumn{1}{c}{}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{(10 GF)}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{(100 GF)}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{(1 TF)}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{(10 TF)}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{(100 TF)} \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
& Free-Space& Guided& Fiber& Fiber Ribbon& Fiber Ribbon \\ 
$10^4$&& Free-Space& Free-Space& Fiber WDM*& Fiber WDM \\ 
100 GF&&&& Optical MIN*& Fiber TDM* \\ 
CPUs&&&&& 100 GHz \\ 
&&&&&\ \ \ Fbr. \\ 
&&1 CPU&10 CPUs&100 CPUs & 1000 CPUs \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
& Free-Space&& Optical MIN& Full & Opt. LAN \\ 
$10^5$&&& Opt. LAN*&\ \ Connectivity& Optical \\ 
10 GF&&&& 100 GHz Fbr.&\ \ Crossbar \\ 
CPUs&&&&& \\ 
&1 CPU&10 CPUs & 100 CPUs & 1000 CPUs & 10,000 CPUs \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&&& \\ 
& Free-Space& Free-Space& Free-Space& Full & Opt. LAN \\ 
$10^6$&&&&\ \ Connectivity& Optical \\ 
1 GF&&&& 100 GHz Fbr.&\ \ Crossbar \\ 
CPUs &&&&& \\ 
& 10 CPUs & 100 CPUs & 1000 CPUs & 10,000 CPUs & 100,000 CPUs \\ 
&&&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\noindent *WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), MIN (Multistage \\ 
Interconnection) Network), TDM (Time Division Multiplexing), \\ 
LAN (Local Area Network) \\ 
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 847
\vspace*{3.75in}
\caption{Three-dimensional Packaging of VLSI Chips using Optical
Interconnection.}
\label{fig2.optics}
\end{figure}
}


\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 856
\begin{center}
\caption{Places within the PetaFLOPS computer hierarchy where various
optical memory technologies will likely be needed.  This is shown for
each of the three proposed PetaFLOPS architectures.}
\label{tab5.optics}
\vspace{10pt}
{\bf Optical Memory for PetaFLOPS Computers}
\vspace{15pt}
{\small
\begin{tabular}{|c|l|c|l|l|}
\multicolumn{1}{c}{}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{Cache}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{RAM}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Disk}&\multicolumn{1}{c}{Archival} \\ 
\hline
&&&& \\ 
$10^4$&Optically Intercon-&&CM ROM with&CD ROM \\ 
100 GF&\ \ nected 3D Memory&\ \ LD &Optical Tape & \\ 
CPUs &\ \ Electronic RAM&Arrays*&& \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&& \\ 
$10^5$&Optically Inter-&&& \\ 
10 GF&\ \ connected&3D &RAIDs* &CD ROM \\ 
CPUs&\ \ Electronic RAM&Memory&(CD ROM)&Optical Tape \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
&&&& \\ 
$10^6$&Optically Inter-&&& \\ 
1 GF&\ \ connected&3D & RAIDs &CD ROM \\ 
CPUs&\ \ Electronic RAM&Memory&(CD ROM)&Optical Tape \\ 
&&&& \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
}
\end{center}
\noindent *ROM (Read Only Memory), LD (Laser Diode), RAIDs (Redundant \\  
Arrays of Independent Disks) \\ 
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 886
\begin{center}
\caption{Recommended research programs to support the insertion of
optics technology into PetaFLOPS computing systems.}
\label{tab6.optics}
\vspace{10pt}
\begin{tabular}{lc}
$\underline{\rm Research\ Areas\ Needing\ Support}$&$\underline{\rm
Recommended\ Support\ (\$M)}$ \\ 
\\ 
Smart pixel arrays&80 \\ 
Interconnection optical&60 \\ 
Optical memory backplane&40 \\ 
3D memory addressing&50 \\ 
Interface to Josephson Junction CPUs&40 \\ 
Optical I/O for ICs&80 \\ 
Optical CAD tools&50 \\ 
All-optical terahertz logic&40 \\ 
Optical radio&40 \\ 
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-12}$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\stepcounter{subsection}
\stepcounter{subsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $4^\circ$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $128\times128$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\mu$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm \approx 64\,K$
}


\stepcounter{subsection}
\stepcounter{subsubsection}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 924
\centering
\caption{Development Milestones for Superconductive 
Technology for PetaFLOPS Computing}
\label{milestones}
\vspace{10pt}
\begin {tabular}{|c|c|c|} \hline 
& \multicolumn{2}{c|}{Milestones}\\  \cline{2-3}
Estimated Costs&\$6M/Year&\$10M/Year\\  \hline
Performance&5-Year&10-Year\\  \cline{2-3}
Metrics&(Years 1--5)&(Years 6--10)\\  \hline
Clock Speed&10 GHz&50 GHz\\  \hline
Logic Gates/Processor&$10^{6}$&$4 \times10^{6}$\\  \hline
Peak Speed&50 GigaFLOPS&1 TeraFLOPS\\  \hline
Power at Cryo Temp.&1 Watt&4 Watts\\  \hline
Memory&50 Gigabytes&1 Terabytes\\  \hline
Wall Plug Power&10 KW&10 KW \\  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 5\,mm$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 16\,Kb$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\rm 64\,Kb$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\approx 6''$
}


\stepcounter{section}
\stepcounter{chapter}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{ll}
Harold S. Stone (chair) & IBM Research\\ 
Thomas Sterling (co-chair) & CESDIS, NASA GSFC\\ 
David Barkai & NASA Ames \\ 
Tom Blank & MasPar \\ 
Seymour Cray & Cray Computer Corp.\\ 
Peter M. Kogge & IBM Federal Systems\\ 
A. Ray Miller & NSA \\ 
Steve Nelson & Cray Research \\ 
Greg Papadopoulos & MIT \\ 
John Pinkston & NSA \\ 
Justin Rattner & Intel SSD \\ 
Burton Smith & Tera Computers \\ 
Tilak Agerwal (reviewer) & IBM \\ 
Thomas Knight (reviewer) & MIT \\ 
\end{tabular}
}


\stepcounter{section}
\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $B$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $C = BL$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $BL$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $C$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-9}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{15}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-11}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-14}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $p^{1/3}$
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{\samepage \clearpage $\log (p).$
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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 969
\centerline{\psfig{figure=configa.eps,clip=true,height=3.25in}}
\caption{Category I architecture, global shared memory}
\label{configa}
\end{figure}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 977
\centerline{\psfig{figure=configb.eps,clip=true,height=3.25in}}
\caption{Category II architecture, network of microprocessors}
\label{configb}
\end{figure}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 987
\centerline{\psfig{figure=configc.eps,clip=true,height=3.6in}}
\caption{Category III architecture, processors in memory (PIM)}
\label{configc}
\end{figure}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 993
[p]
\centering
\caption{Characteristics of Design Points}
\label{chardespt}
\footnotesize
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|} \hline
Attribute & Category I & Category II & Category III \\  \hline
Type & Global Shared & Distributed, Local
& Active memory \\  
& Memory && \\  \hline
Capacity & 1 Byte/FLOPS &  1 Byte/FLOPS & $10^{-3}$ Bytes/FLOPS
\\  \hline
Bandwidth & 1 Word/Sec/FLOPS & 1 Word/Sec/FLOPS & 1 Word/Sec/FLOPS \\ 
&&\phantom{1} (cache)&\phantom{1} (local) \\ 
&                      & 0.1 to 0.5  & $10^{-3}$ Words/Sec  \\ 
&&Words/Sec/FLOPS & (local) \\ 
& & (off-chip) & \\ 
&                      & $10^{-2}$ Words/Sec/FLOPS
&    \\ 
&                      &  (global)
&    \\  \hline
Contention & Pure endpoint  & Throughout hierarchy  &
Mainly chip-to-chip \\  \hline \hline
Memory  & 400 Terabytes & 400 Terabytes & 800 gigabytes \\  
&\phantom{400} SRAM& \phantom{400} DRAM& \phantom{400} DRAM \\  \hline
Chip density & 2 GBytes/chip & 8 GBytes/chip
& 8 GBytes/chip \\  \hline
Chip bandwidth & 16 GBytes/sec/chip & 160 Mbytes/sec/chip 
& 32 Tbytes/sec/chip \\ 
&  &  to 1.6 Gbytes/sec/chip & (internal) \\ 
& & (cache) & 1.6 GBytes/sec/chip \\ 
& & & (external) \\  \hline
Memory & 200,000 & 50,000 & 100 (but will be \\ 
chip count   &               &                 & located on  \\ 
&    &     & CPU chips) \\  \hline \hline
Processor             & 1 TeraFLOPS/sec & 10 GigaFLOPS
&  1 GigaFLOPS     \\ 
performance &        &  to 100 GigaFLOPS
&             \\  \hline
Number & 400 & 4000 to 40,000 & 400,000 \\ 
of CPUs &     &                &         \\  \hline
Chips/CPU & 100 &  1 to 10 &  1/100  \\  
&&& (No memory) \\  \hline
Processor  & 40,000 & 4,000  & 4,000 \\ 
chip count &        & to 40,000 &  \\  \hline \hline
Network  & 1,000 & 5,000 & 0 \\ 
chip count &  &  &  \\  \hline
Total & 250,000 & 60,000  & 4,000 \\ 
chip count &  & to 100,000 &  \\  \hline
Percentage & 80\ & 50\ to 90\ & 10\ to 30 \\ 
memory &      &              & (of chip area) \\  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $400\cdot 10^{12}$
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-12}$
}


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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{table}% latex2html id marker 1012
\centering
\caption{Latency characteristics of design points}
\label{concurlaw}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|} \hline
Attribute & Category I & Category II & Category III \\  \hline
Cache Memory Latency &     & 10 to 100 ns &  \\  \hline
Local Memory Latency &     & 20 ns to 1 $\mu$s  & 1 $\mu$s \\ 
\hline
Global Memory Latency & 1 ps & 100 ns to 1 $\mu$s & 1 ms \\ 
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage $400\cdot 10^{12}$
}


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{\samepage \clearpage $10^{-12}$
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{\samepage \clearpage $400N$
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{\samepage \clearpage $10^{4}$
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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 1026
\centerline{\psfig{figure=density.eps,clip=true,height=3.5in}}
\caption{Projected circuit density for semiconductor technology}
\label{density}
\end{figure}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 1032
\centerline{\psfig{figure=memsize.eps,clip=true,height=3.5in}}
\caption{Parts count for ISA projected memory density}
\label{memsize}
\end{figure}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $\sqrt{N}
\times \sqrt{N}$
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{\samepage \clearpage $\sqrt{N}$
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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 1041
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig6_6.peta,clip=true,width=4.25in}}
\caption{SIA Bandwidth projections for semiconductor technology}
\label{bwsize}
\end{figure}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 1048
\centerline{\psfig{figure=watts.eps,clip=true,width=4.75in}}
\caption{SIA power and I/O bandwidth per pin }
\label{watts}
\end{figure}
}


\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage \begin{figure}% latex2html id marker 1053
\centerline{\psfig{figure=speed.eps,clip=true,height=3.5in}}
\caption{SIA projections for clock rates }
\label{speed}
\end{figure}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage $\rm \mu\,m$
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{\samepage \clearpage \begin{tabular}{ll}

Bill Carlson (Co-Chair) & Supercomputing Research Center\\ 
John Dorband & NASA\\ 
John Feo & Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory\\ 
Dennis Gannon & Indiana University\\ 
Andrew Grimshaw & University of Virginia\\ 
Bert Halstead (Chair) & Digital Equipment Corp.\\ 
Michael Heath & University of Illinois/NCSA\\ 
Monica Lam & Stanford University\\ 
Jim McGraw & Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory\\ 
Piyush Mehrotra & ICASE\\ 
Cherri Pancake & Oregon State University\\ 
Jim Pool & Caltech\\ 
Dan Reed & University of Illinois\\ 
Joel Saltz & University of Maryland\\ 

\end{tabular}
}


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{\samepage \clearpage $10^7$
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{\samepage \clearpage $1000\times 1000$
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\newpage

{\samepage \clearpage $20+$
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\appendix
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\end{document}